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Kristina Richardson

richardson_8

Huntsville,AL

Female

39 Years Old

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Member Since: 3/3/2007
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Relationship: Divorced, Orientation: Straight, Religion: Christian (Other), Ethnicity: Asian, Children: I am a parent, Education: Doctorate, Income: Between $100,000 and $150,000, Height: 5 feet-3 inches, Smoking: No, Drinking: No

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Mar 29, 2007
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Sexy & Romantic glitter graphics from Sexi Luv.com


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Mar 7, 2007
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Mar 7, 2007
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Mar 7, 2007
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Mar 6, 2007
What IS HPV?

WHAT IS THE HPV VIRUS What is the HPV virus? The human papilloma viruses (HPVs) are a group of more than 70 different types of virus. They are given numbers to distinguish them. HPV's can be transmitted through intimate contact, including sexual intercourse. Some of the HPV viruses can cause genital warts - those numbered HPV 6 and HPV 11. These two are sometimes called low risk because they are not associated with cervical cancer. Some types of HPV are linked to cervical cancer particularly numbers 16, 18, 30 and 33. They are called high risk because just about all cervical cancers are positive for high risk HPV. This association is so strong that scientists in this area think that the very small number of cervical cancers that test negatively for HPV have come about because there was a problem with the HPV testing, rather than because the infection wasn't there in the first place. On the other hand, many women who are infected with high risk HPVs do not go on to develop cervical cancer. So there are other factors at work too, such as smoking and how well your immune system is working. Women who smoke and have a high risk HPV infection are more likely to go on to get cervical cancer. It is important to remember that regular cervical screening will pick up abnormal cervical cells before they become cervical cancers. So even if you have HPV and smoke, you can prevent cervical cancer. You could also stop smoking, of course! Those who have lowered immunity also have an increased risk of cervical cancer. This can be because of drugs you are taking for another condition, or because you have an illness that affects your immunity, such as HIV/AIDS. If you have lowered immunity, it is particularly important for you to have regular smear tests. The HPV virus can be latent. That means that it can be present but not active. It is possible for someone to have been infected at some point in the past and for the virus to be asleep or dormant. HPV can lie dormant and be undetected for many years before it becomes active. It may not cause any symptoms and you might not even know that you have it. Only certain strains cause genital warts and the other strains can be present but go completely unnoticed. Most HPV infections disappear without treatment, as the body's immune system fights the infection. HPV testing is not routinely available in the NHS. But the NHS has been considering it as part of the cervical cancer screening programme. Women who test positive for a high risk strain of HPV are more likely to need treatment for borderline or mildly abnormal cervical smears than women who are not. At the moment, if you have a mildly abnormal cervical smear, you may have a colposcopy straight away. Or your doctor may ask you to come back for another smear in 6 months time. If the abnormality does not go away by itself (and it sometimes does), you then need a colposcopy. The NHS are considering introducing HPV testing for women with borderline or mildy abnormal smears. If you had HPV, you would have this treated. If not, you would not need treatment. The cell changes would go back to normal on their own. There are now vaccines available to prevent infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). As HPV is a risk factor for cervical cancer, these vaccines will help to prevent this type of cancer. The Gardasil cervical cancer vaccine was licensed for use within the European Union in September 2006. There is more information about the HPV vaccine in this section of CancerHelp UK.


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Mar 6, 2007
Why Screening for HPV Virus?

Why screen? Cervical screening is very important because we can stop cervical cancer from developing in the first place. This is one of the few cancers that is preventable because pre-cancerous cell changes can be picked up before they have a chance to go to a full-blown cancer. There has been screening available in the UK since 1967. What is the test? The screening test is called a cervical smear. A nurse or doctor takes a small sample of cells from the surface of your cervix and spreads them onto a glass slide. This is called a PAP smear. When it reaches the lab, the slide is treated and then put under a microscope. The cells are examined and any abnormal ones reported. A new way of doing this test is being introduced across the country. For women having the test, it is much the same. But the cells are put into a pot of liquid instead of onto a slide. This is called liquid based cytology. Who is screened? If you are between the ages of 25 and 60 in the UK, you will be contacted at least every five years and asked to come for a cervical screening test. The exact age groups for screening vary between the different countries of the United Kingdom. In England, women between 25 and 64 years are screened. In Northern Ireland and Wales, women between 20 and 64 are screened. In Scotland, women between 20 and 60 are screened. There is information about why the screening age varies further down this page. Why does the screening interval vary? The screening interval is the time between smears. In other words, 3 or 5 years. This used to vary between health authorities. But research reported in 2003 by Cancer Research UK showed that it the screening interval should be decided by age. We can pick up the most cancers by screening women 3 yearly if they are 25 to 49 years old and 5 yearly if they are between 50 and 64. So the guidelines for England have now been changed. For women between 25 and 49, 3 yearly screening prevents 84 cervical cancers out of every 100 that would develop without screening. 5 yearly screening will only prevent 73 cancers out of 100. That is why the guidelines now recommend screening women 3 yearly if they are under 50. It is acceptable and safe for women of 50 or more to have 5 yearly smears. Screening 3 yearly doesn't give any extra protection for this age group. This is probably because abnormal cells develop more slowly in women over 49. The NHS in England have now adopted these recommendations. So if you are between 25 and 49 and live in England, your health authority should be offering you 3 yearly cervical screening. Where can I have the test? You can have a smear test at Your GP surgery A well woman clinic A Family Planning Clinic A Genito-urinary Clinic (clinic for sexually transmitted diseases) An ante-natal clinic if you are pregnant A private health clinic A voluntary organisation clinic, such as Marie Stopes You can ask for a female nurse or doctor to do your smear test. All clinics will have women available to chaperone a male doctor. But if you only want a woman to take the smear, you may have to make an appointment to come back. So if you are concerned about this, it is best to mention it when you originally make your appointment. Remember - you should try to make your smear appointment for the middle of your menstrual cycle. In other words, between periods. It is more difficult for your doctor to see the cervix and take a smear if you are having a period when you go. You may get an inadequate result and have to come back for another smear test. How do they do the test? You take off your underwear and lie on your back on a couch. You have to lie with your knees drawn up and spread apart. If this position is difficult for you to get into, you can ask your nurse to take the smear when you are lying on your side with your knees drawn up. A smear test might be a little uncomfortable because of the position you have to get into. It shouldn't hurt. It can be more uncomfortable if you are very tense. Try to relax. Taking a few deep breaths should help. Breathe in and out deeply through your mouth several times. To make sure that the womb feels a normal size and is in the right position you may need a vaginal examination. Your doctor will not necessarily do this every time you have a smear test. The doctor or a specially trained nurse puts on a disposable glove and puts two fingers inside your vagina. Then, with the other hand, the doctor or nurse presses down on your abdomen gently to feel your womb. To take the smear, the doctor or nurse puts an instrument called a speculum inside your vagina. The speculum has two arms that spread the sides of your vagina apart so that the doctor or nurse can see the cervix clearly. Then the surface of your cervix is scraped with a spatula or brush. This collects a sample of skin cells from the cervix. A Cochrane review in 2000 found that the best way of collecting cervical cells was to use a combination of a brush and extended tip spatula. You can read this review of collection methods of cervical cells in the Cochrane Library. It was written for researchers and specialists, so is not in plain English. As soon as the nurse takes the sample, she will spread them onto a glass slide and send them to the laboratory. The test is then over and you can get down from the couch. Liquid based cytology The NHS screening programme is bringing in a new way of preserving the cells taken in smear tests. It is called liquid based cytology (LBC). The nurse collects the cells from the cervix in the same way, but using a very small brush instead of a spatula. The head of the brush is broken off into a small pot of liquid, or the cells rinsed off into the pot, instead of putting the cells onto a slide. The cells are better preserved, so the results of the smear test are more reliable. The NHS pilot had repeat smear rates of 1 - 2% with LBC, compared to 9% when smears are put straight onto slides. So you are less likely to be called back to have the smear done again with LBC. The 3 pilot hospitals that tested LBC in England (Bristol, Newcastle and Norwich) will continue to use it. LBC is being brought in throughout the UK. It is being used in about 40% of centres so far and will take another 2 years to fully implement across the country. It takes this time because everyone involved in taking and checking smears needs to be trained to use it. LBC has already been fully introduced across Wales and Scotland. In Northern Ireland, they began to introduce it in 2006. How do I get the results? The lab will automatically send the results back to the surgery or clinic where you had the test. Your surgery may not contact you if the smear is normal. But they should if there is anything wrong. Or if the smear could not be read properly for some reason. Just to make sure, it is best to contact your GP or clinic for your own result. Ask when the results should be back. Then you can ring if you haven't heard. What do the results mean? There are several different results you can have after a smear. Some of them are about reading the smear, rather than cervical cancer. You could be told you need a repeat smear because yours could not be read properly (sometimes called having an 'inadequate smear'). This could be because Not enough cells were on the slide You have an infection which meant the cells could not be seen clearly enough You were having a period and there is too much blood to see the cells clearly The cervix was inflamed and so the cells could not be seen clearly enough In all these cases, you will just be asked to go back and have another smear. If you have an infection, you will be given some treatment and then asked to have another smear in a couple of months. You may be told your smear result was 'borderline'. This means that cell changes were seen but that they were so near normal that they are probably nothing to worry about and will go back to normal on their own. You will need to go for a repeat smear (probably in 6 months), but won't need any more tests unless your repeat smear shows that the cell changes are still there or have got worse. Cervical erosion This is a condition often picked up on smear testing. You may hear it called an ectropion. It has nothing to do with cervical cancer. It means that glandular cells, which are only normally seen inside the cervical canal, can be seen on the surface of the cervix. The cervix often looks a little inflamed in this area. An erosion is nothing to worry about. It is common in teenagers, in pregnancy and in women on the pill. It can cause slight bleeding, especially after sex. Usually the condition goes away by itself without any treatment. Abnormal smear results Abnormal smears can be reported in two different ways. If you have abnormal cells you may be told you have Mild or slight cell changes (mild dyskaryosis) Moderate cell changes (moderate dyskaryosis) Severe cell changes (severe dyskaryosis) Your smear test result may say CIN 1, CIN 2, or CIN 3 instead of mild, moderate or severe. CIN stands for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. This just means cervical cell changes. This classification is not strictly accurate as CIN can only really be diagnosed with a biopsy. But the smear results do indicate that you probably have CIN 1 if you have mild cell changes CIN 2 if you have moderate cell changes CIN 3 if you have severe cell changes The three grades of CIN relate to the thickness of the skin covering the cervix that is affected. CIN 1 means one third of the thickness of the skin covering the cervix has abnormal cells. CIN 3 means the full thickness of the skin covering the cervix has abnormal cells. Both the level of cell abnormality (mild, moderate or severe) and the CIN level will be taken into account when deciding whether you need treatment. All these results mean that cells have been found on your smear that were pre-cancerous. This does not mean you have cervical cancer. It means that some of the cells were slightly abnormal and that if they were left untreated, they could go on to develop into cervical cancer. Remember - we are talking about the smear test as screening for cervical cancer here. Screening means testing healthy women. If you have symptoms of cervical cancer, you may be given a smear test as part of the tests used to investigate your symptoms. This is a very different situation to having the smear as a screening test. Mild cell changes and CIN 1 If you have mild cell changes or CIN 1 your doctor will either suggest a colposcopy straight away or ask you to come back for another smear in 6 months time. Sometimes these slightly abnormal cells can go back to normal by themselves. But you should definitely go for your repeat smear. You can't assume that the cells will go back to normal. If your next smear is abnormal, you will then definitely have a colposcopy to check it out further. You may need some treatment. If the next smear is normal, you will still need a further smear in 6 months. The NHS guidelines say that you should have three normal 6 monthly smears, one after the other, before it is safe for you to go back to regular screening. Moderate or severe cell changes and CIN 2 or 3 If you have moderate or severe cell changes, or CIN 2 or 3, you will need treatment to get rid of the abnormal cells. There is more about treatment for an abnormal smear in this section of CancerHelp UK. You usually only need treatment once. Then you have follow up smears. If you do have an abnormal smear and have successful treatment you are very unlikely to get cervical cancer (provided you continue being screened). If you do not have treatment, you are very much at risk from cervical cancer. Carcinoma in situ CIN 3 is sometimes called 'carcinoma in situ'. This sounds like cancer, but it isn't. It means that some of the cells look cancerous. But they are all contained within the skin covering the cervix. It will not be a true cancer until the cells break through the top layer of skin covering the cervix and spread into the tissue underneath. If this happens, the cells can spread and then they will become a true cancer. You must have treatment as soon as possible if you have carcinoma in situ. As long as the affected area is removed, cancer can be prevented. How common are abnormal smears? 9 out of 10 smear results are normal. About 1 in 20 shows borderline or mild cell changes. In most of these women, the cells will go back to normal by themselves. So the women will usually have repeat smears every 6 months until they do. They will only go on to have treatment if the cells don't go back to normal. 1 in 100 smears shows moderate cell changes. 1 in 200 shows severe changes. These women will go on to have colposcopy to investigate further. Less than 1 in 1,000 smears shows an invasive cancer. These women are sent straight to a specialist. Is the smear test reliable? You are bound to have heard various news reports in the past about women being recalled for smear testing because the system went wrong. And even some women dying from cervical cancer because their smears were not checked properly and so they missed out on the treatment they needed. But don't let this put you off! The women affected had abnormal smears that were missed. This should not happen. But it wasn't the smear test that made them ill. In fact, it was as if they hadn't had smear tests. They developed cervical cancer that should have been prevented. As a result of these few mistakes, the system has been tightened up even further. Rather than miss out on your smear test, reassure yourself by asking your nurse or doctor how smears are checked in your health authority. At the moment all the slides are examined in the laboratory by trained technicians looking down microscopes. Because people make mistakes, two different people should now check all smear slides. The scare stories in teh past were all in health authorities who didn't make sure two people checked their slides. And in some cases because technicians were not trained or supervised properly. If you are worried, ask whoever takes your smear whether smears are double checked in your health authority. And what training the technicians receive. If they don't know, ask them to find out and let you know. Lastly, always make sure you get your result. If you do not get the result, there is always the tiny chance that the smear was reported as abnormal but that this result was not sent back to you or your GP. What about if I am under 25 or over 64? The original cervical cancer screening programmes across the UK screened women from 20 to 64. The screening programme in England now starts at 25 because cervical cancer is very rare before this age. But changes in the cervix are quite common in younger women. So screening younger women can lead to unnecessary treatment and worry. There is still more evidence coming in about the exact age groups we should screen. In Wales, Scotland and Ireland, they are still screening from age 20 until more evidence comes in, including from their own screening programmes. Another complication is that liquid based cytology is being introduced. If you make more than one major change at a time to any health programme, you won't necessarily know which change is responsible for improvements in your service. In Wales, for example, they have decided to stick with the original screening age for now and introduce LBC fully before they make any more changes. Just make sure you begin having regular smears as soon as you are 25 if you are sexually active. If you are under 25 and are at all concerned, talk to your GP or go to a well woman clinic. The screening programme stops at 64 because women who have had normal smears are very unlikely to go on to develop cervical cancer after this age. The Department of Health guidelines say that if your last 3 smears were normal when you are 64, there is no need to have any more. But many older women have not had enough smears. One of the reasons the cervical smear programme has not cut the number of cases of cervical cancer as quickly as it should is because there are so many older women who have never had smears. So, if you are over 64 and your last 3 smears were normal, you will not be asked to come and have any more. If you are over 64 and have had abnormal smears, you will continue to be invited for regular smears in the normal way. If you have never had a smear, you should have one done regardless of your age unless you have never been sexually active. Ask at your GP surgery or well woman clinic. Remember - if you are over 64 and have not had three normal smears in a row, you should carry on having regular smear tests until you do. Make sure you ask at your GP or well woman clinic if you think you should continue to have regular smears


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Mar 6, 2007
PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE

Peripheral Vascular Disease What is peripheral vascular disease? This refers to diseases of blood vessels outside the heart and brain. It's often a narrowing of vessels that carry blood to the legs, arms, stomach or kidneys. There are two types of these circulation disorders: Functional peripheral vascular diseases don't have an organic cause. They don't involve defects in blood vessels' structure. They're usually short-term effects related to "spasm" that may come and go. Raynaud's disease is an example. It can be triggered by cold temperatures, emotional stress, working with vibrating machinery or smoking. Organic peripheral vascular diseases are caused by structural changes in the blood vessels, such as inflammation and tissue damage. Peripheral artery disease is an example. It's caused by fatty buildups in arteries that block normal blood flow. What is peripheral artery disease? Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a condition similar to coronary artery disease and carotid artery disease. In PAD, fatty deposits build up in the inner linings of the artery walls. These blockages restrict blood circulation, mainly in arteries leading to the kidneys, stomach, arms, legs and feet. In its early stages a common symptom is cramping or fatigue in the legs and buttocks during activity. Such cramping subsides when the person stands still. This is called "intermittent claudication." People with PAD often have fatty buildup in the arteries of the heart and brain. Because of this association, most people with PAD have a higher risk of death from heart attack and stroke. How is peripheral artery disease diagnosed and treated? Techniques used to diagnose PAD include a medical history, physical exam, ultrasound, X-ray angiography and magnetic resonance imaging angiography (MRA). Most people with PAD can be treated with lifestyle changes, medications or both. Lifestyle changes to lower your risk include: Stop smoking (smokers have a particularly strong risk of PAD). Control diabetes. Control blood pressure. Be physically active (including a supervised exercise program). Eat a low-saturated-fat, low-cholesterol diet. PAD may require drug treatment, too. Drugs include: medicines to help improve walking distance (cilostazol and pentoxifylline). antiplatelet agents cholesterol-lowering agents (statins) In a minority of patients, lifestyle modifications alone aren't sufficient. In these cases, angioplasty or surgery may be necessary. Angioplasty is a non-surgical procedure that can be used to dilate (widen) narrowed or blocked peripheral arteries. A thin tube called a catheter with a deflated balloon on its tip is passed into the narrowed artery segment. Then the balloon is deflated and the catheter is withdrawn. Often a stent a cylindrical, wire mesh tube is placed in the narrowed artery with a catheter. There the stent expands and locks open. It stays in that spot, keeping the diseased artery open. If the narrowing involves a long portion of an artery, surgery may be necessary. A vein from another part of the body or a synthetic blood vessel is used. It's attached above and below the blocked area to detour blood around the blocked spot. See the Related Items box above for links to the Cardiology Patient Page in Circulation, Journal of the American Heart Association: Diseases of the Veins Related AHA publications: Heart and Stroke Facts Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics Update Related AHA Scientific Statements Peripheral Vascular Disease See also: Angioplasty and Cardiac Revascularization Treatments and Statistics Angioplasty, Laser Angioplasty, Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary (PTCA) Anticoagulants Atherectomy Atherosclerosis Bypass Surgery, Coronary Artery Cardiac Catheterization Heart Damage Detection Raynaud's Phenomenon Stent Procedure Stroke Risk Factors Stroke Tests


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