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OBegWon

Richard Bower

OBegWon

Long Beach,CA

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36 Years Old

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Relationship: Single, Religion: Christian (Other), Children: One day, Education: Some college, Height: 5 feet-8 inches, Smoking: No, Drinking: Yes

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Mar 11, 2007
Hey Everybody.....

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Oct 27, 2006
Invitation

I'm giveing an invitation to all who come through Kaneva. Come visit me sometime at http://bower374.spaces.live.com/.

This will be the oportunity to get to know me a little bit better. Fill free to say hi and make an entry.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Your friend, OBegWon.


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Oct 27, 2006
Mexico Cruise

Hello everybody.

I just recently took a cruise to Mexico on a Carnival cruise called Paradise.

The ship left from Long beach, California.

It was a 3 day cruise.

I enjoyed myself by hanging out on the sun deck listening to a Jamaican musical band, I ate a lot of food at the dining

buffet, enjoyed steak and wine with the captain in the Elation Dining area, & hung out in my room watching TV and being

lazy.

What are some trips you have been on? Tell me in detail what you did. I can't wait to here about them.

Your friend, OBegWon.


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OBegWon - Long Beach,CA

28 months ago

Synthetic biology: Researchers mass produce genes on a chip * Home * Nanotechnology * Physics * Space & Earth science * Electronic Devices * Technology * General Science * Medicine & Health Published: 15:05 EST, December 23, 2004 Toolbox * User ranking Rating: n/a * Save as PDF Save as PDF * Print Print * Email Email * Blog It Blog It * Digg It Digg It * del.icio.us del.icio.us * Slashdot Slashdot It! * Stumble It Stumble It! - size + Synthetic biology: Researchers mass produce genes on a chip Sponsored Links (Ads by Google) Scientific Analysis Apps - Full Spectrum Software, biomedical software engineering and testing www.FullSpectrumSoftware.com Systemic Gene Optim. - Best gene optimization platform codon,RNA,G/C,etc. optimization www.SynoGeneInc.com Gene Construction Kit - Illustrate your cloning strategies. Download a free demo today! www.textco.com Imagine that the bricks used to build a house cost $1,000 eachbuilding a home would be cost prohibitive. Similarly, the bricks to build living organismsgenes and genetic assembliescan cost thousands of dollars to make in the lab, which is also cost prohibitive. But now, scientists have developed a way to make the materials for genes on a microchip in mass quantities, for a fraction of the current cost. The technology enabled scientists to make an important part of the genome for an E-coli bug, and to reproduce the instructions for making proteins. This has significant applications in vaccine production, gene therapy, and DNA sensors and diagnostics. "The significance of our paper is that for the first time, we have a mechanism for us to make the genes in high accuracy, very inexpensively, and to make those genes containing the information for the protein factory in an organism" that synthesize all other proteins in the body, said Erdogan Gulari, a University of Michigan professor, the Donald L. Katz Collegiate Professor of Chemical Engineering and co-author of a paper on the topic to appear in the Dec. 23 Nature. "This is the starting point to making a complete functioning organism that can produce energy, neutralize toxins, and produce medically useful proteins, for the benefit of human health and quality of life." The paper, entitled "Accurate multiplex gene synthesis from programmable DNA microchips," was co-authored by researchers from the U-M College of Engineering, Harvard University, University of Houston and Atactic Technologies Inc. The technology is currently licensed to Atactic, a company founded by a U-M College of Engineering alum Xiaochuan Zhou, professors Xiaolian Gao of University of Houston, and Gulari. If made the standard way, a typical gene can cost several thousand to hundreds of thousands of dollars, Gulari said. That's because the cost of putting together each nucleotide, the building block of DNA and RNA, comes to $2 to $7 dollars each. Genes contain thousands to tens of thousands of oligonucleotides, short chains of nucleotides that join together to make genes. So synthesizing all the genes of even the most primitive living organism, which has several thousands of genes, could cost millions of dollars and take years, Gulari said. The new method uses technology similar to that used to make computer chips, Gulari said, and generates oligonucleotides in thousands of tiny reaction wells and releases the sequences synthesized, Gulari said. Scientists start with a thumbnail-sized silicon or glass chip containing microchannels and microwells loaded with low-cost reagent. The wells are so tiny, Gulari said, that thousands of them can be filled by half a drop of water. By shining tiny pixels of light at selected areas on the chip in a predetermined manner, scientists made thousands of gene fragments of specific sequences each containing 30-70 nucleotides. They then collected them in a solution microtube, and stitched them together in the desired order to produce the genes by enzymes. Sponsored Links (Ads by Google) "Diabetes Breakthrough" What Your Doctor Doesn't Know About Curing Diabetes! 100% Guaranteed. MicroNutra.com Pathway Microarray Focus on Apoptosis, Cancer Cytokines, inflammation & Stem Cell www.SuperArray.com SofTrak Putting Greens Selected by GolfWeek for Quality Putts & Chips Like live Green! www.SofTrakgreens.com The benefits of synthetic genes are tremendous, Gulari said. "For instance, these products can be used to improve DNA sensor and diagnostics for comprehensive and more sensitive genetic analysis, and to produce the blueprint for novel proteins," Gulari said. "Some of these proteins would be too toxic to obtain from natural sources, so the synthetic version is much safer. Some of these man-made proteins have novel functions which do not exist in nature, which potentially can be a new generation of vaccines or therapeutics." For instance, Gulari said, 50 percent of drug molecules are based on proteins and antibodies, and there are over 371 new products currently in clinical trials targeting more than 200 diseases. Consequently, there is great interest in creating humanized antibodies for early detection of infection and for medicines. For these applications, millions of new proteins and antibodies must be tested, he said. This technology makes that possible. A forerunner to the synthetic gene was the birth of recombinant DNA (the joining of DNA from different species and subsequently inserting the hybrid DNA into a host cell) about 30 years ago. Recombinant DNA, Gulari said, has become an indispensable tool for advancing biochemical and biomedical sciences for improving health care and disease treatment. Without recombinant DNA technologies, there wouldn't be insulin, alpha interferon (cancer drug), a hepatitis B vaccine, and many human growth hormones and other therapeutic proteins, he said. The U-M College of Engineering is ranked among the top engineering schools in the country. Michigan Engineering boasts one of the largest research budgets of any public university, at $135 million for 2004. Michigan Engineering has 11 departments and two NSF Engineering Research Centers. Within those departments and centers, there is a special emphasis on research in three emerging industries: Nanotechnology and integrated microsystems; cellular and molecular biotechnology; and information technology. The College is seeking to raise $110 million for capital building projects and program support in these areas to further research discovery. The CoE's goal is to advance academic scholarship and market cutting edge research to improve public heath and well-being. Source: University of Michigan » Next Article in General Science: New mixing method for microchip-sized labs

OBegWon - Long Beach,CA

29 months ago

Early registration for Wikimania 2007 is open. [hide] Dark matter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Dark matter (disambiguation). Physical cosmology Physical cosmology Universe · Big Bang Age of the universe Timeline of the Big Bang Ultimate fate of the universe Early universe Inflation · Nucleosynthesis GWB · Neutrino Background Cosmic microwave background Expanding universe Redshift · Hubble's law Metric expansion of space Friedmann equations FLRW metric Structure formation Shape of the universe Structure formation Galaxy formation Large-scale structure Components Lambda-CDM model Dark energy · Dark matter History Timeline of cosmology... Cosmology experiments Observational cosmology 2dF · SDSS CoBE · BOOMERanG · WMAP Scientists Einstein · Friedman · Lemaître Hubble · Penzias · Wilson Gamow · Dicke · Zel'dovich Mather · Smoot · others This box: view " talk " edit In astrophysics and cosmology, dark matter refers to hypothetical matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. According to present observations of structures larger than galaxy-sized as well as Big Bang cosmology, dark matter accounts for the vast majority of mass in the observable universe. Fritz Zwicky used it for the first time to declare the observed phenomena consistent with dark matter observations as the rotational speeds of galaxies and orbital velocities of galaxies in clusters, gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters such as the Bullet cluster, and the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Dark matter also plays a central role in structure formation and galaxy evolution, and has measurable effects on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background. All these lines of evidence suggest that galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and the universe as a whole contain far more matter than that which interacts with electromagnetic radiation: the remainder is called the "dark matter component". The composition of dark matter is unknown, but may include ordinary and heavy neutrinos, recently postulated elementary particles such as WIMPs and axions, astronomical bodies such as dwarf stars and planets (collectively called MACHOs), and clouds of nonluminous gas. Current evidence favors models in which the primary component of dark matter is new elementary particles, collectively called non-baryonic dark matter. The dark matter component has vastly more mass than the "visible" component of the universe.[1] At present, the density of ordinary baryons and radiation in the universe is estimated to be equivalent to about one hydrogen atom per cubic metre of space. Only about 4% of the total energy density in the universe (as inferred from gravitational effects) can be seen directly. About 22% is thought to be composed of dark matter. The remaining 74% is thought to consist of dark energy, an even stranger component, distributed diffusely in space.[2] Some hard-to-detect baryonic matter makes a contribution to dark matter, but constitutes only a small portion.[3][4] Determining the nature of this missing mass is one of the most important problems in modern cosmology and particle physics. It has been noted that the names "dark matter" and "dark energy" serve mainly as expressions of our ignorance, much as the marking of early maps with "terra incognita".[2] Contents [hide] * 1 Observational evidence o 1.1 Galactic rotation curves o 1.2 Velocity dispersions of galaxies o 1.3 Missing matter in clusters of galaxies o 1.4 Structure formation * 2 Dark matter composition * 3 Alternative explanations o 3.1 Modifications of gravity o 3.2 Quantum mechanical explanations * 4 Dark matter in popular culture * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links [edit] Observational evidence This article or section is missing citations and/or footnotes. This article or section contains insufficiently sourced phrases. Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. You may improve the article or discuss this issue on its talk page. Help on using footnotes is available. This article has been tagged since May 2007. A composite image of the galaxy cluster CL0024+17 taken by the Hubble Space Telescope shows the gravitational lensing effect of a dark matter ring-like structure. A composite image of the galaxy cluster CL0024+17 taken by the Hubble Space Telescope shows the gravitational lensing effect of a dark matter ring-like structure. The first to provide evidence and infer the existence of a phenomenon that has come to be called "dark matter" was Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky, of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1933.[5] He applied the virial theorem to the Coma cluster of galaxies and obtained evidence of unseen mass. Zwicky estimated the cluster's total mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge. When he compared this mass estimate to one based on the number of galaxies and total brightness of the cluster, he found that there was about 400 times more mass than expected. The gravity of the visible galaxies in the cluster would be far too small for such fast orbits, so something extra was required. This is known as the "missing mass problem". Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred that there must be some non-visible form of matter which would provide enough of the mass and gravity to hold the cluster together. Composite image of the Bullet cluster shows distribution of ordinary matter, inferred from X-ray emissions, in red and total mass, inferred from gravitational lensing, in blue Composite image of the Bullet cluster shows distribution of ordinary matter, inferred from X-ray emissions, in red and total mass, inferred from gravitational lensing, in blue Much of the evidence for dark matter comes from the study of the motions of galaxies. Many of these appear to be fairly uniform, so by the virial theorem the total kinetic energy should be half the total gravitational binding energy of the galaxies. Experimentally, however, the total kinetic energy is found to be much greater: in particular, assuming the gravitational mass is due to only the visible matter of the galaxy, stars far from the center of galaxies have much higher velocities than predicted by the virial theorem. Galactic rotation curves, which illustrate the velocity of rotation versus the distance from the galactic center, cannot be explained by only the visible matter. Assuming that the visible material makes up only a small part of the cluster is the most straightforward way of accounting for this. Galaxies show signs of being composed largely of a roughly spherically symmetric, centrally concentrated halo of dark matter with the visible matter concentrated in a disc at the center. Low surface brightness dwarf galaxies are important sources of information for studying dark matter, as they have an uncommonly low ratio of visible matter to dark matter, and have few bright stars at the center which impair observations of the rotation curve of outlying stars. According to results published in August 2006, dark matter has been observed separate from ordinary matter[6][7] through measurements of the Bullet Cluster, actually two nearby clusters of galaxies that collided about 150 million years ago.[8] Researchers analyzed the effects of gravitational lensing to determine total mass distribution in the pair and compared that to X-ray maps of hot gases, thought to constitute the large majority of ordinary matter in the clusters. The hot gases interacted during the collision and remain closer to the center. The individual galaxies and the dark matter did not interact and are farther from the center. Dr. Myungkook James Jee and his colleagues announced on May 15, 2007 the discovery of a wispy ring of dark matter 2.6 million light-years wide that envelopes CL0024+17, a huge cluster of galaxies about 5 billion light-years away[9]. Their observation of the dark matter was by way of its gravitational lensing effect on light coming from behind the galaxy cluster as seen by the now broken Hubble Space Telescope's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). Richard Massey, Cal Tech publisher of a dark matter map for a half million galaxies, notes that this announcement only comes from one instrument and that "the signal is very weak. Some people are not yet convinced it's more than an artifact." Confirming studies may need to wait until the James Webb Space Telescope is launched in 2013 unless the Hubble's ACS is repaired by a shuttle mission. [edit] Galactic rotation curves Main article: Galaxy rotation curve Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). Dark matter can explain the velocity curve having a "flat" appearance out to large radii Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). Dark matter can explain the velocity curve having a "flat" appearance out to large radii For nearly 40 years after Zwicky's initial observations, no other corroborating observations indicated that the mass to light ratio was anything other than unity (a high mass-to-light ratio indicates the presence of dark matter). Then in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Vera Rubin, a young astronomer at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington began to present findings based on a new sensitive spectrograph that could measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies to a greater degree of accuracy than had ever before been achieved. Together with fellow staff-member Kent Ford, Rubin announced at a 1975 meeting of the American Astronomical Society the astonishing discovery that most stars in spiral galaxies orbit at roughly the same speed, which implied that their mass densities were uniform well beyond the locations with most of the stars (the galactic bulge). This result suggests that either Newtonian gravity does not apply universally or that, conservatively, upwards of 50% of the mass of galaxies was contained in the relatively dark galactic halo. Met with skepticism, Rubin insisted that the observations were correct. Eventually other astronomers began to corroborate her work and it soon became well-established that most galaxies were in fact dominated by "dark matter"; the exception appeared to be galaxies with mass-to-light ratios close to that of stars. Subsequent to this, numerous observations have been made that do indicate the presence of dark matter in various parts of the cosmos. Together with Rubin's findings for spiral galaxies and Zwicky's work on galaxy clusters, the observational evidence for dark matter has been collecting over the decades to the point that today most astrophysicists accept its existence as a matter of course. As a unifying concept, it is one of the dominant features considered in the analysis of structures on the order of galactic scales and larger. [edit] Velocity dispersions of galaxies Rubin's pioneering work has stood the test of time. Measurements of velocity curves in spiral galaxies were soon followed up with velocity dispersions of elliptical galaxies. While sometimes appearing with lower mass-to-light ratios, measurements of ellipticals still indicate a relatively high dark matter content. Likewise, measurements of the diffuse interstellar gas found at the edge of galaxies indicate not only dark matter distributions that extend beyond the visible limit of the galaxies, but also that the galaxies are virialized up to ten times their visible radii. This has the effect of pushing up the dark matter as a fraction of the total amount of gravitating matter from 50% measured by Rubin to the now accepted value of nearly 95%. There are places where dark matter seems to be a small component or totally absent. Globular clusters show no evidence that they contain dark matter, though their orbital interactions with galaxies do show evidence for galactic dark matter. For some time, measurements of the velocity profile of stars seemed to indicate concentration of dark matter in the disk of the Milky Way galaxy, however, now it seems that the high concentration of baryonic matter in the disk of the galaxy (especially in the interstellar medium) can account for this motion. Galaxy mass profiles are thought to look very different from the light profiles. The typical model for dark matter galaxies is a smooth, spherical distribution in virialized halos. Such would have to be the case to avoid small-scale (stellar) dynamical effects. Recent research reported in January 2006 from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst would explain the previously mysterious warp in the disk of the Milky Way by the interaction of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds and the predicted 20 fold increase in mass of the Milky Way taking into account dark matter. Recently (2005), astronomers from Cardiff University claim to have discovered a galaxy made almost entirely of dark matter, 50 million light years away in the Virgo Cluster, which was named VIRGOHI21.[10] Unusually, VIRGOHI21 does not appear to contain any visible stars: it was seen with radio frequency observations of hydrogen. Based on rotation profiles, the scientists estimate that this object contains approximately 1000 times more dark matter than hydrogen and has a total mass of about 1/10th that of the Milky Way Galaxy we live in. For comparison, the Milky Way is believed to have roughly 10 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter. Models of the Big Bang and structure formation have suggested that such dark galaxies should be very common in the universe, but none have previously been detected. If the existence of this dark galaxy is confirmed, it provides strong evidence for the theory of galaxy formation and poses problems for alternative explanations of dark matter. [edit] Missing matter in clusters of galaxies Strong gravitational lensing as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope in Abell 1689 indicates the presence of dark matter - Enlarge the image to see the lensing arcs. Credits: NASA/ESA Strong gravitational lensing as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope in Abell 1689 indicates the presence of dark matter - Enlarge the image to see the lensing arcs. Credits: NASA/ESA Dark matter affects galaxy clusters as well. X-ray measurements of hot intracluster gas correspond closely to Zwicky's observations of mass-to-light ratios for large clusters of nearly 10 to 1. Many of the experiments of the Chandra X-ray Observatory use this technique to independently determine the mass of clusters. The galaxy cluster Abell 2029 is composed of thousands of galaxies enveloped in a cloud of hot gas, and an amount of dark matter equivalent to more than 1014 Suns. At the center of this cluster is an enormous, elliptically shaped galaxy that is thought to have been formed from the mergers of many smaller galaxies.[11] The measured orbital velocities of galaxies within galactic clusters have been found to be consistent with dark matter observations. Another important tool for future dark matter observations is gravitational lensing. Lensing relies on the effects of general relativity to predict masses without relying on dynamics, and so is a completely independent means of measuring the dark matter. Strong lensing, the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when the light passes through a gravitational lens, has been observed around a few distant clusters including Abell 1689 (pictured right). By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the cluster causing the phenomena can be obtained. In the dozens of cases where this has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters. Perhaps more convincing, a technique has been developed over the last 10 years called weak lensing which looks at microscale distortions of galaxies observed in vast galaxy surveys due to foreground objects through statistical analyses. By examining the shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, astrophysicists can characterize the mean distribution of dark matter by statistical means and have found mass-to-light ratios that correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. The correspondence of the two gravitational lens techniques to other dark matter measurements has convinced almost all astrophysicists that dark matter actually exists as a major component of the universe's composition. [edit] Structure formation Main article: structure formation Dark matter is crucial to the Big Bang model of cosmology as a component which corresponds directly to measurements of the parameters associated with Friedmann cosmology solutions to general relativity. In particular, measurements of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies correspond to a cosmology where much of the matter interacts with photons more weakly than the known forces that couple light interactions to baryonic matter. Likewise, a significant amount of non-baryonic, cold matter is necessary to explain the large-scale structure of the universe. Observations suggest that structure formation in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures collapsing first and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. As the structures collapse in the evolving universe, they begin to "light up" as the baryonic matter heats up through gravitational contraction and the object approaches hydrostatic pressure balance. Ordinary baryonic matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the big bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the Jeans instability. Dark matter acts as a compactor of structure. This model not only corresponds with statistical surveying of the visible structure in the universe but also corresponds precisely to the dark matter predictions of the cosmic microwave background. This bottom up model of structure formation requires something like cold dark matter to succeed. Large computer simulations of billions of dark matter particles have been used to confirm that the cold dark matter model of structure formation is consistent with the structures observed in the universe through galaxy surveys, such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, as well as observations of the Lyman-alpha forest. These studies have been crucial in constructing the Lambda-CDM model which measures the cosmological parameters, including the fraction of the universe made up of baryons and dark matter. [edit] Dark matter composition Unsolved problems in physics: What is dark matter? How is it generated? Is it related to supersymmetry? Although dark matter was detected by its gravitational lensing in August 2006,[12] many aspects of dark matter remain speculative. The DAMA/NaI experiment has claimed to directly detect dark matter passing through the Earth, though most scientists remain skeptical since negative results of other experiments are (almost) incompatible with the DAMA results if dark matter consists of neutralinos. Data from a number of lines of evidence, including galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, structure formation, and the fraction of baryons in clusters and the cluster abundance combined with independent evidence for the baryon density, indicate that 85-90% of the mass in the universe does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This "dark matter" is evident through its gravitational effect. Several categories of dark matter have been postulated. * Baryonic dark matter * Non-baryonic dark matter[13] which is divided into three different types: o Hot dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move ultrarelativistically[14] o Warm dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move relativistically o Cold dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move non-relativistically[15] Davis et al wrote in 1985: Candidate particles can be grouped into three categories on the basis of their effect on the fluctuation spectrum (Bond et al 1983). If the dark matter is composed of abundant light particles which remain relativistic until shortly before recombination, then it may be termed "hot". The best candidate for hot dark matter is a neutrino [..] A second possibility is for the dark matter particles to interact more weakly than neutrinos, to be less abundant, and to have a mass of order 1eV. Such particles are termed "warm dark matter", because they have lower thermal velocities than massive neutrinos [..] there are at present few candidate particles which fit this description. Gravitinos and photinos have been suggested (Pagels and Primack 1982; Bond, Szalay and Turner 1982) [..] Any particles which became nonrelativistic very early, and so were able to diffuse a negligible distance, are termed "cold" dark matter (CDM). There are many candidates for CDM including supersymmetric particles[16] Hot dark matter consists of particles that travel with relativistic velocities. One kind of hot dark matter is known, the neutrino. Neutrinos have a very small mass, do not interact via either the electromagnetic or the strong nuclear force and are therefore very difficult to detect. This is what makes them appealing as dark matter. However, bounds on neutrinos indicate that ordinary neutrinos make only a small contribution to the density of dark matter. Hot dark matter cannot explain how individual galaxies formed from the Big Bang. The microwave background radiation as measured by the COBE and WMAP satellites, while incredibly smooth, indicates that matter has clumped on very small scales. Fast moving particles, however, cannot clump together on such small scales and, in fact, suppress the clumping of other matter. Hot dark matter, while it certainly exists in our universe in the form of neutrinos, is therefore only part of the story. Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe The Concordance Model requires that, to explain structure in the universe, it is necessary to invoke cold (non-relativistic) dark matter. Large masses, like galaxy-sized black holes can be ruled out on the basis of gravitational lensing data. Possibilities involving normal baryonic matter include brown dwarfs or perhaps small, dense chunks of heavy elements; such objects are known as massive compact halo objects, or "MACHOs". However, studies of big bang nucleosynthesis have convinced most scientists that baryonic matter such as MACHOs cannot be more than a small fraction of the total dark matter. At present, the most common view is that dark matter is primarily non-baryonic, made of one or more elementary particles other than the usual electrons, protons, neutrons, and known neutrinos. The most commonly proposed particles are axions, sterile neutrinos, and WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, including neutralinos). None of these are part of the standard model of particle physics, but they can arise in extensions to the standard model. Many supersymmetric models naturally give rise to stable WIMPs in the form of neutralinos. Heavy, sterile neutrinos exist in extensions to the standard model that explain the small neutrino mass through the seesaw mechanism. Experimental searches for these dark matter candidates have been conducted and are ongoing. These efforts can be divided into two broad classes: direct detection, in which the dark matter particles are observed in a detector; and indirect detection, which looks for the products of dark matter annihilations. Dark matter detection experiments have ruled out some WIMP and axion models. There are also several experiments claiming positive evidence for dark matter detection, such as DAMA/NaI, PVLAS, and EGRET, but these are so far unconfirmed and difficult to reconcile with the negative results of other experiments. Several searches for dark matter are currently underway, including the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search in the Soudan mine and the XENON experiment at Gran Sasso, and many new technologies are under development, such as the ArDM experiment. In research due to be fully published in spring 2006, researchers from the University of Cambridge Institute of Astronomy claim to have calculated that dark matter only comes in clumps larger than about 1,000 light-years across, implying an average speed of dark matter particles of 9 km/s, a density of 20 amu/cm³, and temperature of 10,000 kelvins.[17] [edit] Alternative explanations [edit] Modifications of gravity A proposed alternative to physical dark matter particles has been to suppose that the observed inconsistencies are due to an incomplete understanding of gravitation. To explain the observations, the gravitational force has to become stronger than the Newtonian approximation at great distances or in weak fields. One of the proposed models is Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), which corrects Newton's laws at small acceleration. However, constructing a relativistic MOND theory has been troublesome, and it is not clear how the theory can be reconciled with gravitational lensing measurements of the deflection of light around galaxies. The leading relativistic MOND theory, proposed by Jacob Bekenstein in 2004 is called TeVeS for Tensor-Vector-Scalar and solves many of the problems of earlier attempts. A theory of modified gravity (MOG) proposed by John W. Moffatt, based upon the Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory (NGT), is also an alternative to dark matter. In August 2006, a study of colliding galaxy clusters claimed to show that even in a modified gravity hypothesis, the majority of the mass must be some form of dark matter by demonstrating that when regular matter is "swept away" from a cluster, the gravitational effects of dark matter (which is thought to be non-interacting aside from its gravitational effect) remain.[18] A study claims that TeVeS may be able to produce the observed effect, but this still requires the majority of the mass to be in the form of dark matter, possibly in the form of ordinary neutrinos.[19] Also Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory has been claimed to qualitatively fit the observations without needing exotic dark matter.[20] [edit] Quantum mechanical explanations In another class of theories one attempts to reconcile gravitation with quantum mechanics and obtains corrections to the conventional gravitational interaction. In scalar-tensor theories, scalar fields like the Higgs field couples to the curvature given through the Riemann tensor or its traces. In many of such theories, the scalar field equals the inflaton field, which is needed to explain the inflation of the universe after the Big Bang, as the dominating factor of the quintessence or Dark Energy. Using an approach based on the exact renormalization group, M. Reuter and H. Weyer have shown[21] that Newton's constant and the cosmological constant can be scalar functions on spacetime if one associates renormalization scales to the points of spacetime. In Laurent Nottale's scale relativity theory, space-time is continuous but not differentiable, leading to the appearance of a gravitational Schrödinger equation. As a result, quantization effects appear at large scale [22]. This makes it possible to predict correctly the large scale structures of the universe without the need for the dark matter hypothesis. [edit] Dark matter in popular culture Main article: Dark matter in fiction Mentions of dark matter occur in some video games and other works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties. Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology. [edit] See also * Scalar Field Dark Matter * SIMP * Light Dark Matter * Self-interacting dark matter * Mirror matter * Dark Energy * Conformal gravity [edit] References 1. ^ Some Theories Win, Some Lose. NASA., using the WMAP dataset 2. ^ a b Cline, David B.. "The Search for Dark Matter", Scientific American. 3. ^ Freese, Katherine; Brian Fields, David Graff. "Death of Stellar Baryonic Dark Matter Candidates". arXiv:astro-ph/0007444. 4. ^ Freese, Katherine; Brian D. Field, David S. Graff. "Death of Stellar Baryonic Dark Matter". arXiv:astro-ph/0002058. 5. ^ Zwicky, F. (1933). "Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln". Helvetica Physica Acta 6: 110127. See also Zwicky, F. (1937). "On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae". Astrophysical Journal 86: 217. 6. ^ A direct empirical proof of the existence of dark matter. Arxiv. 7. ^ Dark Matter Observed. SLAC Today. 8. ^ Direct constraints on the dark matter self-interaction cross-section from the merging galaxy cluster 1E 0657-56 9. ^ Discovery of a Ringlike Dark Matter Structure in the Core of the Galaxy Cluster Cl 0024+17 10. ^ "Astronomers claim first 'dark galaxy' find", New Scientist, 2005-02-23. See also: Wikinews:Dark matter galaxy discovered 11. ^ Abell 2029: Hot News for Cold Dark Matter. Chandra X-ray Observatory collaboration (11 June 2003). 12. ^ NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter. NASA., at the Chandra X-ray Observatory 13. ^ Silk, Joseph. The Big Bang, 1989, chapter ix, page 182. 14. ^ Umemura, Masayuki; Satoru Ikeuchi (1985). "Formation of Subgalactic Objects within Two-Component Dark Matter". Astrophysical Journal 299: 583592. 15. ^ Vittorio, N.; J. Silk (1984). "Fine-scale anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background in a universe dominated by cold dark matter". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor 285: L39L43. DOI:10.1086/184361. 16. ^ Davis, M.; Efstathiou, G., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. (May 15, 1985). "The evolution of large-scale structure in a universe dominated by cold dark matter". Astrophysical Journal 292: 371394. DOI:10.1086/163168. 17. ^ Amos, Jonathan. "Dark matter comes out of the cold", BBC News, 5 February 2006. 18. ^ NASA (2006-08-21). NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter. Press release. 19. ^ Angus, Garry W.; Shan, HuanYuan; Zhao, HongSheng; and Famaey, Benoit (2006-11-05). On the Law of Gravity, the Mass of Neutrinos and the Proof of Dark Matter. Arxiv. Retrieved on 2006-12-01. 20. ^ Moffat, J. W. (2006-08-30). Gravitational Lensing in Modified Gravity and the Lensing of Merging Clusters without Dark Matter. Arxiv. Retrieved on 2006-12-01. 21. ^ Reuter, M.; H. Weyer (2004). "Running Newton Constant, Improved Gravitational Actions, and Galaxy Rotation Curves". Phys. Rev. D 70. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevD.70.124028 arXiv:hep-th/0410117. 22. ^ Da Rocha, D.; Nottale, Laurent (2005-02-25). Gravitational structure formation in scale relativity. Chaos, solitons and fractals. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Category:Darkmatter * Found: Most of the Universe - by Phil Plait * Hot Dark Matter - by Martin White * Dark Matter Portal - by Frédéric Mayet * "Most of our Universe is Missing" - Horizon video * "Particle Dark Matter: Evidence, Candidates and Constraints" - by G. Bertone, D. Hooper and J. Silk * "Experimental Searches for Dark Matter" - by Timothy J. Sumner * "Dark matter comes out of the cold" - BBC News 5 February 2005 * "Astronomers find Starless Galaxy" - BBC News 23 February 2005 * "In the Beginnings" - The Economist 13 January 2005 * Elliptical galaxies have dark matter halo as well * Recent papers on dark matter on arXiv.org * NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter (images), (text) * Paper on Direct Proof of Dark Matter * News and Video Release of 3D Map of Dark Matter's scaffolding at ESA/Hubble * Dark matter exists CNN.com * Dark matter lacks extra gravitational force on Wikinews * Dark matter introduction articles * Avant News spoof on the true nature of dark matter * "Team finds 'proof' of dark matter" Paul Rincon (2006) BBC online. First direct evidence for dark matter * Dark Matter Exists by Sean M. Carroll. * Cosmology's Missing Mass Problems by Robert Fritzius * A big find in the hunt for elusive dark matter Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter" Categories: Articles with unsourced statements since May 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements | Celestial mechanics | Physical cosmology | Dark matter | Large-scale structure of the cosmos | Astroparticle physics | Exotic matter Views * Article * Discussion * Edit this page * History * Watch Personal tools * TKDK173 * My talk * My preferences * My watchlist * My contributions * Log out Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article interaction * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * File upload wizard * Contact us * Make a donation * Help Search Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Printable version * Permanent link * Cite this article In other languages * 'D91(J) * J;30@A:8 * Català * esky * Dansk * Deutsch * •»»·½¹º¬ * Español * Esperanto * A'13Ì * Français * Galego * \m´ * Hrvatski * Ido * Bahasa Indonesia * Íslenska * Italiano * âÑèÙê * Latina * Lietuvis * .2/>3 * Nederlands * å,ž * *Norsk (bokmål), * Polski * Português * CAA:89 * Simple English * Sloven ina * Slovena ina * !@?A:8 / Srpski * Suomi * Svenska * Ti¿ng ViÇt * Türkçe * #:@0W=AL:0 * '1/H * -‡ Powered by MediaWiki Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified 18:00, 24 June 2007. * All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. 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Halima - United States

29 months ago

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stvincentman - Land O Lakes,FL

30 months ago

one luv man and god bless

debbienboo - Leominster,MA

32 months ago

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32 months ago

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32 months ago

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32 months ago

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34 months ago

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35 months ago

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36 months ago

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36 months ago

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36 months ago

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37 months ago

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37 months ago

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37 months ago

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37 months ago

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37 months ago

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37 months ago

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